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Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Basics
Chemistry
Periodic table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Molecular structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Isomerism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Biomolecules I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Biomolecules II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chemical reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Physical Chemistry
Energetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Equilibriums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Enthalpy and entropy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Reaction kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Water as a solvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Hydrophobic interactions. . . . . . . . . . . 28
Acids and bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Redox processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Biomolecules
Carbohydrates
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chemistry of sugars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Monosaccharides and disaccharides . . . 38
Polysaccharides: overview . . . . . . . . . . 40
Plant polysaccharides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Glycosaminoglycans and glycoproteins . 44
Lipids
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fatty acids and fats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Phospholipids and glycolipids . . . . . . . 50
Isoprenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Steroid structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Steroids: overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Amino Acids
Chemistry and properties. . . . . . . . . . . 58
Proteinogenic amino acids . . . . . . . . . . 60
Non-proteinogenic amino acids . . . . . . 62
Peptides and Proteins
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Peptide bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Secondary structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Structural proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Globular proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Protein folding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Molecularmodels: insulin. . . . . . . . . . . 76
Isolation and analysis of proteins . . . . . 78
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
Bases and nucleotides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
RNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
DNA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Molecular models: DNA and RNA . . . . . 86
Metabolism
Enzymes
Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Enzyme catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Enzyme kinetics I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Enzyme kinetics II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Lactate dehydrogenase: structure . . . . . 98
Lactate dehydrogenase: mechanism . . . 100
Enzymatic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Coenzymes 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Coenzymes 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Coenzymes 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Activatedmetabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Metabolic Regulation
Intermediarymetabolism. . . . . . . . . . . 112
Regulatorymechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Allosteric regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Transcription control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Hormonal control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Energy Metabolism
ATP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Energetic coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Energy conservation at membranes. . . . 126
Photosynthesis: light reactions . . . . . . . 128
Photosynthesis: dark reactions . . . . . . . 130
Molecular models: membrane proteins . 132
Oxoacid dehydrogenases. . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Tricarboxylic acid cycle: reactions . . . . . 136
Tricarboxylic acid cycle: functions . . . . . 138
Respiratory chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
ATP synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Respiration and fermentation . . . . . . . . 146
Fermentations . . . . . . .

Carbohydrate Metabolism
Glycolysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Pentose phosphate pathway . . . . . . . . . 152
Gluconeogenesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Glycogenmetabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Diabetesmellitus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Lipid Metabolism
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Fatty acid degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Minor pathways of fatty acid
degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fatty acid synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Biosynthesis of complex lipids . . . . . . . 170
Biosynthesis of cholesterol . . . . . . . . . . 172
Protein Metabolism
Protein metabolism: overview . . . . . . . 174
Proteolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Transamination and deamination . . . . . 178
Amino acid degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Urea cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Amino acid biosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Nucleotide Metabolism
Nucleotide degradation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Purine and pyrimidine biosynthesis . . . 188
Nucleotide biosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Porphyrin Metabolism
Heme biosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Heme degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Organelles
Basics
Structure of cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Cell fractionation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Centrifugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Cell components and cytoplasm . . . . . . 202
Cytoskeleton
Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Structure and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Mitochondria
Structure and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Transport systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Biological Membranes
Structure and components . . . . . . . . . . 214
Functions and composition. . . . . . . . . . 216
Transport processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Transport proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Ion channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Membrane receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus
ER: structure and function. . . . . . . . . . 226
Protein sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Protein synthesis and maturation . . . . 230
Proteinmaturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Lysosomes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Molecular Genetics
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Genome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Transcription. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Transcriptional control . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
RNAmaturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Amino acid activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Translation I: initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Translation II: elongation and
termination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Antibiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Mutation and repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Genetic engineering
DNA cloning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
DNA sequencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
PCR and protein expression. . . . . . . . . 262
Genetic engineering in medicine . . . . . 264
Tissues and organs
Digestion
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Digestive secretions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Digestive processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Resorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Blood
Composition and functions . . . . . . . . . 274
Plasma proteins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Lipoproteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Hemoglobin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Gas transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Erythrocytemetabolism . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Ironmetabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Acid–base balance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Blood clotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Fibrinolysis, blood groups . . . . . . . . . . 292
Immune system
Immune response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
T-cell activation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Complement system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Antibodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Antibody biosynthesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Monoclonal antibodies, immunoassay . 304


Liver
Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Buffer function in organ metabolism . . 308
Carbohydratemetabolism . . . . . . . . . . 310
Lipidmetabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Bile acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Biotransformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Cytochrome P450 systems . . . . . . . . . . 318
Ethanolmetabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Kidney
Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Urine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Functions in the acid–base balance. . . . 326
Electrolyte andwater recycling . . . . . . 328
Renal hormones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Muscle
Muscle contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Control ofmuscle contraction. . . . . . . . 334
MusclemetabolismI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
MusclemetabolismII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Connective tissue
Bone and teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Calciummetabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Collagens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Extracellularmatrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Brain and Sensory Organs
Signal transmission in the CNS. . . . . . . 348
Resting potential and action potential. . 350
Neurotransmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Receptors for neurotransmitters. . . . . . 354
Metabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Nutrition
Nutrients
Organic substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Minerals and trace elements . . . . . . . . 362
Vitamins
Lipid-soluble vitamins . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Water-soluble vitamins I . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Water-soluble vitamins II . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Hormones
Hormonal system
Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Plasma levels and hormone hierarchy. . 372
Lipophilic hormones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Metabolism of steroid hormones . . . . . 376
Mechanismof action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Hydrophilic hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Metabolism of peptide hormones . . . . . 382
Mechanisms of action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Secondmessengers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Signal cascades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Other signaling substances
Eicosanoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Cytokines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Growth and development
Cell proliferation
Cell cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Apoptosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Oncogenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Tumors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Cytostatic drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Viruses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Metabolic charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Calvin cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Carbohydratemetabolism. . . . . . . . . . . 408
Biosynthesis of fats and
membrane liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Synthesis of ketone bodies and steroids 410
Degradation of fats and phospholipids . 411
Biosynthesis of the essential
amino acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Biosynthesis of the non-essential
amino acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Amino acid degradation I . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Amino acid degradation II. . . . . . . . . . . 415
Ammoniametabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Biosynthesis of purine nucleotides . . . . 417
Biosynthesis of the pyrimidine nucleotides
and C1metabolism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Nucleotide degradation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Annotated enzyme list . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Quantities and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Source credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Key to color-coding:
see front and rear inside covers